Monday, December 6, 2010

Future Changes in Criminal Justice Sysem

Future Changes in  the Criminal Justice System
by Linda L Smith 


                    Over the next 50 years, many changes are expected in the field of Criminal Justice.
Although we do cannot accurately predict the future, there are many trends, alluding to the direction the Criminal Justice is heading. These changes will reflect modern technological break though scientific discoveries such as nanotechnology, anti toxins new surveillance systems new DNA a detection systems, and weapons.

              Right now, some terrorist organizations are seeking to obtain weapons of mass destruction involving possible chemical, biological radiological and nuclear threats (Schmalleger, 2011 p.556). Computer information theft, as well as attempts to gather classified information from the government’s computers is very common. There are ominous viral computer worms that terrorists or sabotaging unfriendly countries attempt to use trying shut down government systems and Army weapon systems (Schmalleger, 2011 p.655). “Technical sophistication of state sponsored terrorist organizations is rapidly increasing” (Schmalleger, 2011 p.655). “Handguns and even larger weapons are being manufactured out of plastic polymers and ceramics” (Schmalleger,2011 p.655). “These guns are capable of firing Teflon coated armor- piercing hardened ceramic bullets, weapons as such as these are extremely powerful and impossible to uncover with metal detectors”(Schmalleger,2011 p.655). There is a new evidence of the black-market availability of other ominous items, including liquid metal embrittlement (LME), which is a chemical that slowly weakens any metal it contacts. LME can be effortlessly applied with a felt tip pen to fuselage components in domestic aircraft, causing delayed structural failures which is an insidious form of sabotage (Schmalleger, 2011 p.655). In the future backpack type electromagnetic pulse generators may soon be available to terrorists. They could be carried into major cities; setup next to important computer installations, and activated to wipe out billions of items of financial, military or other information now stored on magnetic media. International terrorists, along with the public, have easy access to maps and other information they could be used to cripple the nation (Schmalleger, 2011 p.655). .

          In a recent NIJ sponsored symposium, several experts offered their views of what Criminal Justice would look like forty years into the future (Schmalleger, 2011 p. 673). The experts were Bryan J.Vila, former chief of the NIJ’s Crime Control and Prevention Research Division; Christopher E. Stone, a professor of the practice of criminal justice at Harvard University’s John F. Kennedy School of Government and David Weisburd, professor of criminology at the University of Maryland (Schmalleger, 2011 p. 673) . Vila said that he believe that the future crime fighters will need to understand what he calls the co evolution of crime commission and crime fighting (Schmalleger, 2011 p. 673). Technological advances will have a profound effect on crime fighting, according to Villa. (Schmalleger, 2011 p. 673) .Developments in surveillance, biometrics, DNA analysis and radio frequency will have a great influence on crime fighting. According to Vila, the future will bring improvements in systems that allow official to talk electronically to one another, particularly in emergencies (Schmalleger, 2011 p. 673). He also believes that better connections between citizens and agencies will lead to a decrease in criminal opportunities (Schmalleger, 2011 p.673).

Stone emphasized what he envisions professional culture emerging around the globe that will influence the world’s criminal justice system in decades to come. Because according to him a new culture is spreading professionalism through justice systems worldwide in areas of bilateral transfer of information between countries, the global dissemination of justice products such as court management Computer Systems, Consulting Services, and prison design, as well as comparative empirical evidence about what works and what doesn’t work and why” (Schmalleger, 2011p.673) .

          Weisburd says that the nature of criminal justice in 2040 will depend in large part on the primary research methodology that we employ between now and then. He questions whether criminal justice community would be better served by relying on the experiences and opinions of practitioners or by research that test programs and measures outcome (Schmalleger,2011 p. p.673).

         A number of expert systems exist. Today one is used by the FBI’s National Center for the Analysis of Violent Crimes (NCAVC) in a project designed to profile violent serial criminals. The NCAVC system depends on computer models of criminal profiling to provide a theoretical basis for the development of investigative strategies. A number of other systems have been developed, including some that focus on serological (blood serum) analysis, narcotics interdictions, serial murders, rape and counter terrorism. Similar to the expert systems that exist today are the rational databases, which permit fast and easy sorting of large numbers of records. (Schmalleger, 2011 p. 668).

          ImAger, a product of Face software, Inc uses computer technology to artificially age photographs of missing infants and children. The program has been used successfully to identify and recover a number of children (Schmalleger, 2011 p. 669). Police artists, to create simulated photographs of criminal suspects (Schmalleger, 2011 p.669), use a program called Compusketch by Visatex Corporation.

         Advanced computer aided investigation systems are being touted by agencies like NASA and the defense advanced research projects agency DARPA as having the ability to prevent crime (Schmalleger, 2011 p. 669). DARPA for instance announce its new Total Information Awareness (TIA) program in 2003 (Schmalleger, 2011 p. 669). The five-year-old development project used information sorting and pattern matching software to sift through vast numbers of existing business and government databases in an effort to identify possible terrorist threats (Schmalleger, 2011 p. 669). The software detects suspicions patterns of activity, identifying the people involved, also locating them so that the investigations can be conducted (Schmalleger, 2011 p. 669). Another benefit this technology is that suspected insurgents might be identified with similar software when it detects a series of credit card, bank, and official transactions, that form patterns resembling preparations for insurgency attack (Schmalleger, 2011 p. 669), this process, known as Data Mining, generates computer models in an attempt to predict terrorist actions (Schmalleger, 2011 p. 669). Privacy advocates have raised concerns about the DARPA software, but the agency has try to defuse concerns by explaining to the public, that the project is not an attempt to build a supercomputer to snoop into the private lives, or track every day activities of the American citizen (Schmalleger, 2011 p. 669). “The agency claims that all TIA research complies with all privacy laws without exception Schmalleger, 2011 p. 669)”.

     DNA profiling also termed DNA fingerprinting makes use of the human DNA for purposes of identification. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) is a nucleic found in the center of cells and is the principal component of chromosomes, the structures that transmit heredity characteristics between generations (Schmalleger, 2011 p. 663). The DNA in people’s blood is the same as the DNA in their saliva, skin tissue, hair, and bone (ncjrs.gov). Notably, DNA does not change throughout a person’s life. DNA is a powerful investigative tool because, with the exception of identical twins, no two people have the same DNA (ncjrs.gov). The Justice Dept notes that DNA evidence is playing a larger role than ever before in criminal cases throughout the country, both to convict the guilty and to exonerate those wrongly accused or convicted (ncjrs.gov). Portable, miniature chips will make possible the analysis of DNA directly at the crime scene, which can be telemetered to databases, offering the possibility of immediate identification (Asplen, 2000).

      Other systems such as SNPs, Alu sequences, mitochondrial DNA, and Y chromosome DNA will continue to be developed. Techniques for handling minute amounts of DNA or DNA that is badly degraded will become much better. In particular, mitochondrial DNA will probably play an increasing role in such difficult cases. Databases of DNA profiles of convicted felons will be extensive and coordinated throughout the States. International comparisons will be feasible and increasingly common. The rate at which this is implemented is heavily dependent on funding. With the current 13 core STR loci, it is generally possible to distinguish among individuals, including relatives as close as siblings, with a high degree of reliability. There may be a convention adopted that will enable a sufficiently low match probability to be regarded as identification (Asplen, 2000).

        Another new technology tool Crime scene investigators may soon have is one that could let them determine a suspect or victim's age from a bloodstain. Researchers in the Netherlands have developed a test that quantifies the amount of a specific molecule in blood to approximate a person's age to within nine years, plus or minus, it would help when you have two suspects, an older and a younger suspect in criminalistic testing (Chu. 2010). . Investigators can already determine a person's age by analyzing bones and teeth (Chu. 2010). Most often, bloodstains are the only evidence at a crime scene, while scientists can analyze DNA in blood to identify characteristics like eye color, skin tone, and gender, age is a trickier issue (Chu. 2010). This can also be of beneft(Chu. 2010).

      Chris Painter is deputy chief of the Computer Crime and Intellectual Property Section of the U.S. Department of Justice, overseeing a team of 22 lawyers involved in all aspects of computer crime, from denial-of-service attacks to attacks on computer networks (Green, 2006). When asked how is the technology used by these criminals changing? His answered “the kinds of technology they are often using are meant to hide their identities, by using proxy servers, secure websites, or by routing their communications through several different countries, which is why it is so important for us to work internationally (Green, 2006). However, they always come up with new ways of invading people's computers and taking advantage of new vulnerabilities. When asked, “What do you see in the future of cybercrime fighting”? He expressed the view that , we need to continue to work on an integrated response, as we get more secure implementations in the Internet and other protocols, it will help, according to Painter, people are going to continue to commit these types of crimes and we are going to need to respond to them(Green, 2006). The key, he says” is making sure we have strong international partnerships, among not only law enforcement, but also having a unified response, so the law enforcement people who do these investigations are working with the technical people and companies getting the technical community and law enforcement community are talking to each other constantly”(Green, 2006). Painter stated, “He does not anticipate cyber crime really decreasing, anticipating that as new technologies are developed there are going to be continued attacks” (Green, 2006).

                Nanotechnologies, is engineering and creating products on a molecular level and whose applications are still in the realm of future science, although everyday there are new breakthroughs (Schmalleger, 2011 p. 672).

      Another DARPA project, could meet the needs of American law enforcement agencies but is currently being developed for military use overseas, is called Combat Zones That See (CZTS) Schmalleger, 2011 p. 669). “The CZTS program will build a huge surveillance system by networking existing cameras from department stores, subway platforms, banks, airports, parking lots, and other points of surveillance, and by feeding images to a supercomputer like processor capable of recognizing suspects by face, gait, and mannerisms as they move from or one place to another” (Schmalleger, 2011 p. 669). “The data can be fed via satellite to remote locations across the globe, allowing the agency to track suspect so on the move-either within cities or between countries” (Schmalleger, 2011 p. 669). “Vehicles could also be tracked CZTS is being introduced gradually in selected locations, beginning with ARI years in and around American military bases” (Schmalleger, 2011 p. 669). “Future implementations of CZTS may involved now nano-cameras equipped with microminiaturize transmitters is that can be spread all the cities like grains of dust but which have the power to communicate relatively detailed information to local cellular like installations for entry into the CZTS Network” (Schmalleger, 2011 p. 669).

        Just in the last few days, we have seen two incidences that reflect on a hostile climate and the need for surveillance;

        Late Sunday, WikiLeaks issued a statement saying the leaked cables are the largest set of confidential documents ever to be released into the public domain. The website said that the cables, which date from 1966 until the end of February this year, will be released in stages over the next few months. WikiLeaks claimed that the documents show the extent of United States spying on its allies and the United Nations; overlooking or accepting corruption and human rights abuse in friendly states; doing backroom deals with supposedly neutral countries; and lobbying for American corporations. “The White House condemned the disclosure of classified documents and released a statement Sunday saying, in part: "We anticipate release of what are claimed to be several hundred thousand classified State Department cables on Sunday night that detail diplomatic discussions with foreign governments”. The statement acknowledged that the cables could "compromise private discussions with foreign governments and opposition leaders,'' and warned that the disclosures put diplomats and intelligence and other officials at risk. The cables were initially obtained by WikiLeaks, a website dedicated to obtaining and disseminating government secrets. (Torregrosa 2010)

        In my opinion, this is a form of espionage and I think the people responsible should be arrested and tried for it. They have already admitted that their intent is to embarrass the United States, hence interfering with diplomatic relationships and possibly the security of this nation.

    The second news story happened on November 26, 1020, Thanksgiving weekend:  The FBI thwarted an attempted terrorist bombing in Portland's Pioneer Courthouse Square before the city's annual tree-lighting Friday night, according to the U.S. Attorney's Office in Oregon.

A Corvallis man, thinking he was going to ignite a bomb, drove a van to the corner of the square at Southwest Yamhill Street and Sixth Avenue and attempted to detonate it. However, the supposed explosive was a dummy that FBI operatives supplied to him, according to an affidavit in support of a criminal complaint signed Friday night by U.S. Magistrate Judge John V. Acosta. Mohamed Osman Mohamud, 19, a Somali-born U.S. citizen, was arrested at 5:42 p.m., 18 minutes before the tree lighting was to occur, on an accusation of attempting to use a weapon of mass destruction . The FBI operatives cautioned Mohamud several times about the seriousness of his plan, noting that there would be many people, including children, at the event, and that Mohamud could abandon his plans at any time with no shame. "You know there's going to be a lot of children there?" an FBI operative asked Mohamud. "You know there are gonna be a lot of children there?" Mohamud allegedly responded he was looking for a "huge mass that will ... be attacked in their own element with their families celebrating the holidays." "I want whoever is attending that event to leave, to leave either dead or injured," Mohamud reportedly told the FBI operatives, the affidavit says(Denson, 2010).

     In my opinion, advancement in technology has many benefits which can aid society in many ways, as well as our criminal system evidence gathering and surveillance as well as combating terrorists nationally and abroad. No matter what changes come, the one thing that should not changed is our support for our criminal justice system, has to remain technologically and scientifically ahead of our adversaries. This means that the Justice Department must be given enough monetary resources, professional staff, and access to sophisticated technology to combat any present or future threat. This is very important for the security of the country because a great deal of effort will be needed in order to defend ourselves from impending present and future threats. It is an imperative that all the resources needed, be granted to the Department of Justice, and that they are not subjected to politicizing, or reductions to the budget due to attrition, so that our security will not be compromised.

Reference


Asplen, C. (2000). The future of forensic DNA testing: Predictions of the Research. National Commission on the Future of DNA Evidence, Retrieved on December 6, 2010 from, www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/183697.pdf - 2006-07-07

(Denson, B. (2010). FBI thwarts terrorist bombing attempt at Portland holiday tree lighting, authorities say. Retrieve on November 29, 2010, from http://www.oregonlive.com/portland/index.ssf/2010/11/fbi_thwarts_terrorist_bombing.html

Chu, J. (2010). A spot of blood reveals your age. Technology Review, Published by MIT, Retrieved on December 6, 2010 from, http://www.techreview.com/computing/26766/?p1=MstRcnt&a=f

Green, k. (2006). Catching cyber criminals. Technology Review, Published by MIT, Retrieved on December 6, 2010 from http://www.technologyreview.com/article/16529/

Schmalleger, F. (2011). Criminal justice today: An introductory text for the 21st century (11th Ed.), Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Torregrosa,L.L.(2010) Leaking of Secret U.S. Cables Sparks Diplomacy Crisis, Politics Daily retrieved on November 29, 2010 fromhttp://www.politicsdaily.com/2010/11/28/leaking-of-secret-u-s-cables-sparks-diplomacy-crisis/

Understanding DNA evidence: a guide for victim service providers; National Commission on the Future of DNA Evidence Office of Justice Programs National Institute of Justice; Retrieved on December 6, 2010 from www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/bc000657.pdf

Monday, October 25, 2010

Privatizing American Prisons for Corporate Profit? Exploitation of Crime and the Criminal System

Privatizing American Prisons for Corporate Profit? Exploitation of Crime and the Criminal System

       The prison population has grown at a staggeringly high rate of 600 percent since 1973. Various Political agendas and policies have been interjected into the Correctional system. This agenda influences our laws and the public perceptions about dealing with Crime and Punishment, When criminals keeps returning to society without having been rehabilitated ,hence committing the same crimes over and over again, and being returned back to the prisons, it not only costs us tax payer money but the free population’s safety is put into jeopardy.

        Is it a coincidence that the rise in the building of Privatized prisons coincides with the prison population boom? What solutions to recidivism are there? Do corporations such as Criminal Corporation of America (CCA) have strong motivations to manipulate the public and the political system into policies that are seemingly prudent but wind up costly, weakening services undermining rehabilitation, and do not reduce recidivism? In several reports, the Pew organization and prominent experts in various high profile positions have pointed out facts that will help us to determine whether or not these privatized prisons are fulfilling their claims and promises of efficiency and quality throughout their expansive growth during last twenty years.

                                          Purposes for prisons in the US justice system

       Beginning in the 17th century, merchant shippers pioneered in the expansion of transportation as a form of punishment. Once institutionalized, transportation remained a standard form of punishment for well over the next 200 years. For half or maybe more of this period, it was the single most significant sentence for serious offenders. At no or little or no cost to the state, shippers would transport felons to North America. They would make their profit in the middle Atlantic colonies by selling their human cargo into a form of limited-term slavery to tobacco and cotton farmers who were desperate for labor. This system remained popular and profitable up to the American Revolution, at which time it was suspended (Feeley, M.M. 2002)

      The creation of the prison as a method for punishment in the United States was developed in the late eighteenth century. The Walnut Street Jail, established in 1790 was the first prison designed to house sentenced offenders in the United States. The reformation of the offender was its primary objective. Inmates were expected to read the Bible, reflect on their transgressions, and do penance for their crimes, hence, penitentiary was established as the term used for secure facilities that held offenders serving a criminal sentence (Seiter, R. P. 2008).

       Penology is the study of punishment, emphasized the principal function of implementing punishment for agencies handling criminal offenders after their sentencing (Seiter, R. P. 2008). However, this term generally included a much broader focus than simply punishment; in effect it covered the theories, activities, and operations of carrying out the criminal sentence, be they in a prison or in the community, criminal sanctions were applied on a regular basis (Seiter, R. P. 2008).

    The mission of corrections has traditionally been to implement court prescribed sentences for criminal violators or to carry out the sentence of the court. However; most contemporary correctional administrators recognize a much broader mission and responsibility. The more complete mission of corrections is to protect society. Protection of society is accomplished through a combination of surveillance and control of offenders, of treatment and rehabilitative services, and of incapacitation during the service of a prison sentence. “The sentencing goals of corrections are: punishment, deterrence, incapacitation, rehabilitation, and restitution” (Seiter, R. P. 2008).

       Punishment is necessary for deterrence, and the presence of punishment encourages rehabilitation, but there is a negative side as well because; punishment is also reactive in that it focuses on the act of the crime, giving little attention to an offender’s particular circumstances or needs, be they psychological or educational (Seiter, R. P. 2008)..

     Deterrence is a correctional goal focused on future actions (or the avoidance of certain actions) by both individuals and society. For general deterrence to be effective the punishment must be visible and the public must believe that if they commit a crime they will be caught and punished, and that the punishment will be carried out uniformly, consequently the benefits of the crime will not outweigh the punishment (Seiter, R. P. 2008).

     Incapacitation is thought of as reducing offenders’ ability or capacity to commit further crimes. , through the restriction of incarceration; society is protected from the offender’s poten-tial criminals’ acts (Seiter, R. P. 2008).

     Rehabilitation is the goal of corrections to rehabilitate offenders, returning them to society better able to avoid criminality and less likely to commit further crimes. Finally there is restitution, restitution is concerned with acts by which criminals make right the wrongs they have committed, or repay society or their victims for their wrongs (Seiter, R. P. 2008). All of these components are part of our correctional system and are important to the contributions of crime reduction in the United States.

                               An Examination of Current Conditions in US Prisons

In a report is based on research by Dr. Bruce Western and Dr. Becky Pettit, jointly authored by the Economic Mobility Project and the Public Safety Performance Project of The Pew Charitable Trusts, “Over the past 30 years, the United States has experienced explosive growth in its incarcerated population. “The Pew Center on the States” reported in 2008 that more than 1 in 100 adults are now behind bars in America, by far the highest rate of any nation. The direct cost of this imprisonment boom, in dollars, has been staggering: state correctional costs quadrupled over the past two decades and now top $50 billion a year, consuming 1 in every 15 general fund dollars” (Western, B. & Pettit, B. 2010).

      Prior to 1972, the number of prisoners had grown at a steady rate that closely tracked growth rates in the general population. Between 1925 (the first year national prison statistics were officially collected) and 1972, the number of state prisoners increased from 85,239 to 174,379.2 However, starting in 1973, the prison population and imprisonment rates began to rise precipitously. This change was fueled by stiffer sentencing and release laws and decisions by courts and parole boards, which sent more offenders to prison and kept them there for longer terms (Seiter, R. P. 2008).

      In the nearly five decades between 1925 and 1972, the prison population increased by 105 percent; however, in the four decades since then, the number of prisoners grew by huge 705 percent. By including local jail inmates to state and federal prisoners, the Public Safety Performance Project calculated in 2008 that the overall incarcerated population had reached an all-time high, with 1 in 100 adults in the United States living behind bars (The Pew Charitable Trusts 2010).

      The prison populations is made up of predominantly male (88.4 percent), they are non-white (64 percent), and young (61.8 percent are under age 35), and have a high school education or less (86.9 percent). Forty-six percent were nonviolent recidivists and 41 percent had a current or prior violent offense. Most (73 percent) had previously been on probation or in jail or prison. (82 percent) had prior drug use and (93 percent) had been involved in substance abuse treatment. A significant number (33 percent) were under the influence of alcohol at the time of their crime. (59 percent) are poor, with reporting a monthly income of less than $1,000 (less than 12,000 a year). Over one-third of the prison population is reported to have a physical or mental disability (Seiter, R. P. 2008).

     From 2000 through 2007, local jail administrators reported 8,110 inmate deaths in custo-dy. Deaths in jails increased each year, from 905 in 2000 to 1,103 in 2007. Annually, more than 80% of the nation’s jails reported no deaths in their custody. Deaths from any illness, including AIDS, accounted for more than half (53%) of all deaths in local jails. Heart disease was the leading cause among illness deaths in local jails (42%). Suicide was the single leading cause of unnatural deaths in local jails, accounting for 29% of all jail deaths between 2000 and 2007, but the suicide rate declined from 49 to 36 deaths per 100,000 inmates. Between 2000 and 2007, the suicide rates were higher in small jails than large jails. In jails holding 50 or fewer inmates, the suicide rate was 169 per 100,000; in the largest jails, the suicide rate was 27 per 100,000 inmates. After adjusting for differences associated with the age, sex, race, and Hispanic origin, suicide was the only cause of death that occurred at a higher rate in local jails than in the U.S. general population (Noonan, M. 2010).

              Programs Which Seek To Reduce Recidivism In Modern Prisons.

       Recidivism, or criminal re-offense, is closely related to rehabilitation through treatment programs in that if a treatment program is successful the offender will be less likely to re-offend (Bower, B. M., n. a.). By taking into consideration a diverse range of individual personality traits, rather than focusing solely on more demographic-type variables, and adding these measurements to the models already being used to predict recidivism, corrections departments became more capable of identifying and targeted youth who were at the highest risk for recidivism. Research along these lines has contributed noteworthy exploration and literature to the topic of preventing juvenile recidivism. This increase of knowledge has also provided additional guidance for improving treatment programming within juvenile detention centers and rehabilitation facilities (Bower, B. M., n.a.)

      Over the past two years to reduce recidivism rates, state lawmakers enacted both a 60-day credit for people in prison who complete certain programs and a grant program for local community corrections agencies to increase success rates among those under supervision by 20 percent. The measures are expected to avert $80 million in state spending over the next five years. Kansas policymakers worked with the Council of State Governments Justice Center, and with the support of the Bureau of Justice Assistance, a component of the U.S Department of Justice, and the Public Safety along with Performance Project of The Pew Charitable Trusts’ Center on the States, to pursue a justice reinvestment strategy. With the prison population projected to increase by 22 percent, policymakers were faced with the prospect of appropriating nearly $500 million over ten years to build and operate approximately 1,292 additional prison beds. Kansas policymakers instead identified another path and applied a justice reinvestment strategy (Council of State Governments Justice Center2007)

     Another project was in the State of Texas, in order to reduce recidivism rates and avert further growth in the prison population, state lawmakers enacted a package of criminal justice policies to improve success rates for people on community supervision, expand the capacity of treatment and diversion programs, and enhance the use of parole for low-risk offenders. Policymakers reinvested $241 million (which would have otherwise been appropriated for the construction and operation of new prisons) for additional treatment and diversion programs. By enacting these policies, the state saved $210.5 million for the 2008–2009 fiscal bienniums. The good news here is if the new treatment and diversion programs are successful and no additional prisons are constructed, the state will save an additional $233 million (http://nicic.gov).

                                   Rehabilitative programs in prisons.

        Rehabilitation consists of a planned intervention intended to change behavior. Various methods have been used over the years, including treatment, job training, and cognitive therapy. Correctional agencies offer psychological counseling to help offenders understand the factors that activate certain behaviors. Anger management help offenders recognize dangerous situations in which they possibly will act unlawfully. Sensitivity training, as part of rehabilitations purpose is to get offenders to understand the impact of their criminal actions on the victims and their families. Correctional programs try to build competencies and insights in offenders that may assist them in avoiding problems that heighten their likelihood of committing crime, these programs are designed to help offenders to increase their educational level, teaching and improv-ing offenders’ decision making skills, an important part of this program developing vocational skill, so that the prisoner will have an alternative way to make a living, other than criminal acts. In the past researchers have given much more attention to the effects of deterrence and incapaci-tation oriented approaches to the crime problem (Worrall, J. L. 2008).

        An interrelated limitation of rehabilitation is that it can take time and cost a significant amount of money. This means that people need to be patient and realize that behavior does not change immediately (Worrall, J. L. 2008). The most-researched method of reasoning training is known as Reasoning and Rehabilitation (R&R). The R&R training curriculum was developed by Robert Ross and Elizabeth Fabiano. Based on several cognitive theories, the training program relies on audiovisual presentations, reasoning exercises, games, and group discussions in an effort to change clients’ decision-making processes. The program comprises thirty-five 90- to 120-minute sessions. Eight specific subject modules are used to teach specific skills. The training begins with problem-solving training and concludes with values enhancement (Worrall, J. L. 2008). Some of the components are problems solving, social skills, negotiation skills, managing emotions, creative thinking, critical and value enhancement. R&R appears to work rather well for low-risk offenders; unfortunately the program’s effectiveness has been shown to be less successful with high-risk offenders.

        Results for Phase I of the Georgia Cognitive Skills Program, which is based on R&R, showed the emerging pattern across evaluations of cognitive programs finding the largest effects for the smaller programs. When looking at the effects for those who completed the program, sig-nificant differences between groups appear. Those completing the Cognitive Skills Program had recidivism rates that were roughly 20% lower than comparison group members; on that basis, the results suggested that program completion substantially reduces offender recidivism. (Van Voorhis, P. 2001).

      There are some limitations to rehabilitation. There is an assumption that underlies reha-bilitation: that people can change through some type of planned intervention. The truth is that not all criminals can change. There are some individuals are resistant to treatment; others may just be prone to failure. Consequently people need to be patient and realize that behavior does not change overnight (Worrall, J. L. 2008). Americans tend to be somewhat impatient with respect to crime control, wanting quick fixes, but the reality is rehabilitation rarely works in the short term, and it requires significant commitments by those providing it, those receiving it, and those who will live, work, and associate with rehabilitated offenders (Worrall, J. L. 2008).

                   An analysis of re-introduction to society programs, or the lack thereof

     Probation and parole can be thought of as means to an end because; they are intended to put someone on the road toward rehabilitation, treatment, reintegration, and other goals. In other words, probation and parole are intended to change offenders so that they don’t continue to commit crimes. When returning offenders can find and keep legitimate employment, they are more likely to be able to pay restitution to their victims, support their children and avoid crime (Worrall, J. L. 2008).

     Devastating consequences; psychological, physical, spiritual damage even criminal acts can be aftermath of the misuse of drugs, this is indisputable. Some people abuse drugs and alcohol to escape or alleviate aversive states of anxiety or depression. The importance of educating those who are substance abusers, to the negative effects of drugs, and methods used to avoid the use of drugs and alcohol, is of vital importance. Possibly the proper extended medical help, and mental therapy might be of great support in the process of reentering society.

    Ex-convicts are ostracized, hence many former prisoners or parolees resort to a former life of crime and or self medication and escapism through drugs, as well as to the bad influences of their environment. Work agencies dedicated to helping establish these people back into society should be helping, in conjunction with having state or federal tax breaks (deductions) for em-ployers who hire the formally incarcerated for a required period of time, as an incentive, it this way the released prisoners can become reestablished and successful.

     There is a stigma after one serves there time in prison. Some feel, records for rehabilitated criminals should be unavailable to the public and employers after they have served their time and have gone through rehabilitation, after a period of time establishing a secured position in society. There should be as many follow-ups as necessary for counseling and continued therapy if necessary so that the ex-prisoner can make an adjustment back into society again, hopefully we will have less of a recidivism rate thereby reducing costs and the potential threat to public safety.

                       Current approaches to protect the public upon a prisoner’s release.

      Probation departments play a dual role in the criminal justice system. Probation officers are charged with both protecting public safety and rehabilitating offenders. As protectors of public safety, probation officers act as law enforcement officers, responsible for monitoring probationers’ activities and ensuring that probationers comply with court-ordered conditions of probation. In many states, probation officers are sworn peace officers and, as such, possess much the same authority as police officers. Undeniably, probation officers are quite often conflicted in two competing directions: the law enforcement direction or the social service direction (Worrall, J. L. 2008).

      Offenders placed in an Intensive supervised probation (ISP) are supervised by probation officers who have smaller caseloads (an average of 29 per officer in 2001), and provide more frequent contacts through a combination of office reporting by offenders and home and work visits by the officer. The intensified supervision allows for enhancing the goal of incapacitation, in view of the fact that the additional contacts reduce the opportunity for slipping into criminal behavior and because the number of contacts required disrupts the daily lives of offenders. It can enhance rehabilitation, because officers with smaller caseloads can provide counseling or follow-up on treatment plans for the offenders they supervise. In a review of the effectiveness of intensive supervision for both probationers and parolees, the findings were mixed in terms of the positive results from ISP programs. In a review of fourteen counties in nine states, Petersilia and Turner found that judges placed high-risk probationers in the programs rather than diverting of-fenders from prison. The ISP participants were watched more closely (having more contacts with their supervising officers) and, while this did not result in more arrests, there were significantly more technical violations (70 percent for the ISP group and 40 percent for regular probationers), which resulted in 27 percent of the ISP participants being returned to prison or jail compared to only 19 percent of regular probationers at the end of one year. However, when the ISP supervi-sion was combined with drug treatment, community service, and employment programs with surveillance, recidivism rates were 10 to 20 percent lower than for those who did not participate in such activities. Another analysis of 175 evaluations of ISP programs also found that combining surveillance with treatment resulted in reduced recidivism (Seiter 2008).

         New Proposals to Help Protect the Public and Ensure That A Prison Does Not Re-offend Upon Release.

     Advances in supervision technology such as Global Positioning System (GPS) monitors, rapid-result drug tests and ATM-like reporting kiosks offer authorities new technologies to monitor the whereabouts and activities of offenders in the community. These capabilities are giving lawmakers, judges and prosecutors greater confidence that they can protect public safety and hold offenders accountable with sanctions other than prison ((Seiter 2008).

         Over the past decade, state legislatures began to take another step in controlling sexual offenders and protecting potential victims (especially children) from them by passing a new type of mental disorder law that allows a diagnosis of sex offenders as sexually violent predators.When a person is convicted of a sex offense, he or she receives a specific sentence for that crime. Once the inmate serves his time and is nearing release, the state files a petition to have him involuntarily and indefinitely committed to a mental institution or special correctional setting that is a blend of a prison and a mental institution. The process is called recommitment, it includes the completion of an evaluation by mental health professionals, and a probable cause hearing is held to determine whether to label the offender a sexually violent predator. Most juris-dictions require that the offender be judged to suffer from a mental abnormality or personality disorder that makes it likely he will continue to commit acts of sexual violence, even though there are no specific professional criteria that can objectively be considered. If so labeled, once finishing his prison sentence, he is confined in the mental health facility until he is judged by mental health professionals to no longer be a danger to the community. By 2005, sixteen states had passed laws to involuntarily commit sexually violent predators (Seiter)

     It would be a good idea is to analyze the data that suggests that (82 percent) of prisoners had prior drug use and (93 percent) had been involved in substance abuse treatment. A significant number (33 percent) were under the influence of alcohol at the time of their crime, (59 percent) are poor, with reporting a monthly income of less than $1,000, monthly. Over one-third of the prison population is reported to have a physical or mental disability The study also suggested the prisoners are undereducated, having a high school education or less (86.9 percent) (Seiter, R. P. 2008). This statistical portrait draws a vividly accurate profile of what and who should be the focal points of rehabilitation, and an indication of what has to be accomplished if we want to reduce recidivism and make the communities safer.

      Recidivism is implicated in some of the most fundamental reasons why we incarcerate-rehabilitation and specific deterrence. In addition, the implications of recidivism studies are not trivial. Marginal reductions in recidivism can have dramatic social and economic benefits. A reduction in recidivism could reduce payments from the public purse for new prison beds and lower the social and economic costs of victimization (Gaes, G. G. 2005).

     Sexual victimization of children and adults is a significant treatment and public policy problem in the United States. To deal with increasing concerns regarding sex offender recidivism, nine states have passed legislation since 1996 authorizing the use of either chemical or physical castration. (Scott, C. L. and Holmberg, T. 2003). In most statutes, a repeat offender’s eligibility for probation or parole is linked to acceptance of mandated hormonal therapy. Future legal challenges to this wave of legislation will probably include arguments that such laws violate constitutional rights guaranteed to the offender by the First, Eighth, and Fourteenth Amendments. When the promise of freedom is predicated on mandated treatment, the clinician must carefully evaluate the validity of informed consent (Scott, C. L. and Holmberg, T. 2003).

                        Privatization vs. Government Correction system

       Interestingly Privatization of prison is not a new idea, San Quentin prison, was the first facility constructed and operated by a private provider in the 1850s. Private entrepreneurs per-suaded state officials that the facility could best be operated under a long-term lease arrangement with an entity that had experience in law enforcement. Even back then the debate centered on costs, with the argument made that a private-sector entity would be less expensive and less corrupt than the government. However, in that particular case, after a number of major scandals surfaced surrounding the mismanagement of the facility by the private provider, the state decided to turn the facility over to the control of state government (Austin, J. and Coventry, G 2008).

        In the case of cost comparisons, findings of no real difference in conditions of confinement have their critics and are far from being generally accepted as valid. Perhaps most controversial is CCA’s involvement in a group called the American Legislative Exchange Council. ALEC is a powerful force in the promotion of the conservative policy agenda, including tougher sentencing rules, among state legislators. CCA has been a corporate member of ALEC and a member of its Criminal Justice Task Force, which helps write model bills. Through its support of ALEC, CCA is helping to create greater demand for its services as a result of changes in state policies that keep more people behind bars for longer periods (Mattera, P, and Khan, M. 2003).

       In spite of the lack of conclusive empirical evidence on cost or program efficiency, the problem stream carried the privatization idea along, and the number of private prison beds under contract increased steadily, from 15,300 in 1990 to 145,160 in 1999 ( Culp, R. F. 2005).

       In meta-analysis of reports (Lundahl, B. W. et-al 2008) on head-to-head comparisons between an identifiable privately managed and publicly managed prison(s) identifying 12 studies. Indicators of cost of confinement and confinement quality were assessed. Results suggest privately managed prisons provide no clear benefit or detriment. The conclusion was: Cost savings from privatizing prisons are not guaranteed and appear minimal. Quality of confinement is similar across privately and publicly managed systems, but publicly managed prisons delivering slightly better skills training and having slightly fewer inmate grievances (Lundahl, B. W., Kunz, C, B., C., Harris, N. and Vleet, R .V 2008).

     The bombardment of intellectual and academic criticism has not been able to halt the momentum toward greater incarceration created by the last two decades of uncontrolled spending on corrections, impelled by longer and mandatory prison sentences, and immense increases in the number of those incarcerated for drug offenses. The investment of private capital in the form of correctional privatization, plus the growth of exceedingly powerful corrections unions, in combination, compounded with an unmistakably simplistic and inflammatory public demands egged on by the media in conjunction with the political discourse on the value of prisons, had all but guaranteed the continued growth in incarceration (Jacobson M. 2005).

     Some feel the pendulum is swinging the other way now, due to the slowdown of taxes caused by the bad economy, and the fact that prisons costs are consuming a greater percentage of the budget, politicians have now started to look to different cost saving alternatives “We have come to a point where $50 billion a year, is consuming 1 in every 15 general fund dollars” (Western, B. & Pettit, B. 2010).

     As the private prisons seek to make a profit, the programs reducing recidivism and re-habilitation might possibly be cut in size and quality if that happens the gains we are making in recidivism might be affected by the privatized corporation s. Various Political agendas such as the ALEC and the Criminal Justice Task Force, helps write model bills., private corporations policies have been interjected into the Correctional system through lobbying and laws. Since 1973 the privatization agenda has influenced our laws and the public perceptions about dealing with crime and punishment, the war on drugs has managed to incarcerate a population of poor undereducated, vastly minority, drug and alcohol addicted, mentally disturbed people. We have a prison population that has grown at a staggeringly high rate of 600 percent, costing us $50 billion a year, consuming 1 in every 15 general fund dollars (The Pew Charitable Trusts 2010). Those policies have been a failure and need to change, because when criminals keep returning to society without having been rehabilitated , committing the same crimes over and over again, and being returned to the prisons, it not only costs US tax payers money but the puts safety of the free population into jeopardy. We need to get lobbyists out of the law making business. Privatization of the prisons at the very least has been revealed to be manipulative of our laws and inflationary of our budget.

                                                            Research

Austin, J. and Coventry, G (2008). Emerging Issues on Privatized Prisons Office of Justice Pro-grams.; Complex American Behavioral Scientist, January 2008; vol. 51, 5: pp. 625-644.Retrieved on October 5, 2010 from www.ojp.usdoj.gov.

Bower, B. M. (N.A.) Cellmate suicides: A look at current treatment programs for adolescents in correctional and detention Facilities, University of Southern California Journal of Law and Society Retrieved on October 11, 2010 from pun.sagepub.com

Council of State Governments Justice Center (2007). Justice Reinvestment State Brief: Kansas, New York, NY: Council of State Governments Justice Center Retrieved on October 23, 2010 from http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/BJA/.

Culp, R. F. (2005). The Rise and Stall of Prison Privatization: An Integration of Policy Analysis Perspectives Criminal Justice Policy Review 2005 16: 412 DOI: 10.1177/0887403405275837 Retrieved on 10/11/2010 from cjp.sagepub.com

Feeley M.M. (2002). Entrepreneurs of punishment: The legacy of privatization Punishment & Society, July 2002; vol. 4, 3: pp. 321-344. Retrieved on October 11, 2010 from pun.sagepub.com

Gaes, G. G. (2005, February). Prison privatization in Florida: promise, premise, and performance. Criminology & public policy, 4(1), 83-88. Retrieved from the ProQuest Database

Jacobson M. (2005). Downsizing prisons: how to reduce crime and end mass incarceration New York, NY, USA: NYU Press, 2005. http://site.ebrary.com/lib/ashford/Doc?id=10137182&ppg=5

Justice Reinvestment State Brief: Texas. Retrieved on October 23, 2010 from http://nicic.gov/Library/022689

Lundahl, B. W., Kunz, C, B., C., Harris, N. and Vleet, R .V (2008) Prison Privatization: A Meta-analysis of Cost and Quality of Confinement Indicators Research on Social Work Prac-tice, July 2009; vol. 19, 4: pp. 383-394. Retrieved on October 11, 2010 from http://online.sagepub.com

Mattera, P., Khan, M. Nathan, S. (2003) Corrections Corporation of America: A critical look at its first twenty years Washington, DC: Good Jobs first, 2003 Retrieved on October 11, 2010 from psu.edu

National Assessment of Structured Sentencing Bureau of Justice Assistance: Structured Sentenc-ing, Retrieved September 27, 2010 from www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles/strsent.pdf 10.1177/0887403405275837

Noonan, M. (2010). Deaths in Custody Reporting Program Mortality in Local Jails, 2000–2007 Bureau of Justice Statistics July 2010, NCJ 222988 Retrieved October 24,2010 from http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/content/dcrp/dictabs.cfm.

Scott, C. L. and Holmberg, T. (2003). Castration of sex Offenders: Prisoners’ rights versus public safety; the Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law retrieved from the internet on October23, 2019

Seiter, R. P. (2008). Corrections: An introduction (2nd ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc. ISBN: 0-13-224905-7

The Pew Charitable Trusts (2010) Collateral Costs: Incarceration’s Effect on Economic Mobility. The Pew Charitable Trusts, 2010, Washington, DC Retrieved September 29, 2010, from the research library

Van Voorhis, P (2001) The Georgia Cognitive Skills Experiment Outcome Evaluation Phase One; Division of Criminal Justice University of Cincinnati, retrieved on October 17, 2010 from http://nicic.gov/Library/017251

Western, B. and Pettit, B. (2010). Incarceration & social inequality. Daedalus, 139(3), 8-19,146-147. Retrieved September 29, 2010, from Research Library. (Document ID: 2112053851).

Worrall, J. L. (2008). Crime control in America: What works? (2nd ed.). Boston: Pearson Educa-tion, Inc. ISBN: 978-0-205-59339-2

Tuesday, August 24, 2010

The Impact of Functionalism, Conflict, and Interactionism Theories on the Economy
Linda Smith

August 23, 2010

In modern society Sociologists employ three primary theoretical perspectives: the symbolic Interactionist perspective, the functionalist perspective, and the conflict perspective, which offer sociologists theoretical paradigms for explaining how society influences people, and how people influence society. Each perspective uniquely conceptualizes society’s social forces, and human behavior. Because the economy is an important element of society, sociologists are interested in how those segments of the political populace influence the economy.
Interactionist theorists
The Interactionist theorist’s view of society is that they are active in influencing and affecting everyday social interaction. The key concepts are symbols, nonverbal communication and face to face interaction. The view of the individual is that people manipulate symbols and create their social worlds through interaction. Their view of social order is maintained by shared understanding of everyday behavior. The view of social change is reflected in people’s social position and a communication with others.
Interactionist norms are maintains through face to face interaction their values are defined and redefined through social interaction their culture and society’s core culture perpetuated to daily social interactions; their cultural variations, customs and traditions are transmitted through intergroup content and through the media. Interactionist theorists emphasize that our social behavior is conditioned by the roles and statuses we accept, the groups to which we belong ,and the institutions within which we functions Proponents were George Herbert Mead, Charles Horton Cooley, and Erving Goffman.
Functionalist view
The Functionalist view of society is stable and integrated. The level of analysis emphasized is macro. Functionalists look at society as a social system. Structural functionalist believe everything is intertwined and interconnected for stability. They believe that institutions such as, school, church, racism, etc. exist to serve society and are therefore maintained by society. The key concepts of the functionalists are manifest functions, latent functions, dysfunctions. Their view of the individual is that people are socialized to perform societal functions. The view of the social order of the functionalist is maintained through social order. The view of social change of the functionalist is predictable, advocating reinforcing punishments for instance, to reinforce the social order. The norms from the functional perspectives, is to reinforce societal standards. Their values are collective conceptions of what is good. Cultural variations subcultures, serve the interests of subgroup groups. Functionalists believe ethnocentrism enforces global solidarity. Functionalists themselves have often invited severe criticism. The concepts of moving equilibrium and the hierarchically of ordered systems are rarely used, eliminating in most instances two of the four ways of studying change functionally (Cancian, F.1960)
Proponents of Functionalism were; Emile Durkheim, Talcott Parsons and Robert Merton.
Conflict Theorists Views
Conflict theorists view of society characterized by tension and struggle between groups. Level of analysis emphasized, is macro. Its key concepts are; inequality, capitalism, stratification, the view of the individual; people are shaped by power coercions and authority; it is a paradigm that emphasizes conflict and change as basic features of social life. Conflict theorists believe that society is held together by coercion. They look at the struggle for power in a society and believe things exist for those with power. In the conflict theorist’s view, social changes take place all the time and may have positive consequences. Conflict perspectives norms reinforce patterns of dominance; its values may have an effect on social inequality, culture and society, a society’s dominant ideology, and cultural variations. It questions the culture of the dominance and social order and feels ethnocentricity devalues groups. The proponents of conflict theory were Karl Marx, W. E. B. Dubois and Ida Wells Barnett.
All three majors groups play various important roles in politics sociological changes as well as in the economy. Economic sociology, particularly its neo-Weberian formulation, can be defined as a sociological theory of economic action (Zafirovski, M. 2001). Sociological perspective on the economy, economic rationality (maximization of utility, wealth, or profit) is not a parameter, as it is within conventional economics, but a variable, subject to variations over historical time and across societies (Zafirovski, Milan 2001). economic sociologists do not view economic contexts as separate from social and cultural contexts, but rather view them as reflective of and embedded within such contexts; economic sociologists view actor preferences and individual actions less as intact, calculated, and about maximizing utility more as ambiguous and affected by socially derived cognitive strategies, substantive rationality, feelings, roles, norms, myths, and expectations that form the basis for (Korczynski, M., Hodson, R, and Edwards, P. Eds. 2006).
The Economy
In preindustrial societies land functioned as a source of virtually all wealth the industrial. Revolution changed all that it required that certain individuals and institutions are willing to take substantial risks in order to finance new inventions machinery and business enterprises. Essentially bankers’, industrialists, and other holders of large sums of money replaced land owners as the most powerful economic force, invested their funds in the hope of realizing even greater profits and thereby became owners of property and business firms.
In the transition to private ownership, business was accompanied by the emergence of the capitalist economic system. Capitalism is an economic system which the means of production dealt largely in private hands and the main incentive for economic activity is the accumulation of profits. In practice capitalist systems varying degrees to which the government regulates private ownership and economic activity. “Following the industrial revolution the prevailing form of capitalism was what is called laissez-faire (“let them do”)” (Schaefer, R.T.2009 p. 335).
Under the principle of laissez-faire, as expanded and endorsed by British economist Adam Smith (1723-1790), people could compete freely, with minimal government intervention with the economy. Business retained the right to regulate itself and operate essentially without fear of government interference (Schaefer, R.T.2009).
In preindustrial societies land functioned as a source of virtually all wealth the industrial revolution changed all that it required that certain individuals and institutions be willing to take substantial risks in order to finance new inventions machinery and business enterprises. Essentially banker’s industrialists other holders of large sums of money replaced land owners as the most powerful economic force. These people invested their funds in the hope of realizing even greater profits and thereby became owners of property and business firms.
Capitalism
The transition to private ownership the business was accompanied by the emergence of the capitalist economic system. Capitalism is an economic system which the means of production dealt largely in private hands and the main incentive for economic activity is the accumulation of profits. In practice capitalist systems varying degrees to which the government regulates private ownership and economic activity. Business retained the right to regulate itself and operate essentially without fear of government interference. Two centuries later, capitalism has taken on a fairly different appearance. Private ownership and maximum innovation of profits still remain the most significant characteristic of capitalist economy systems however, in contrast to the air of laissez-faire, capitalism today features government regulations of economic relations. Without restrictions, business firms could mislead consumers, endanger workers’ safety, and even destroy the company’s investors, all in the pursuit of greater profits. That is why the governments of capitalist nations monitors prices, set safety and environmental standards for industries, to tax the rights of the consumer, and regulates collective bargaining between labor unions and management. Capitalism as an ideal type government in its pure form, takes over ownership of an entire industry. Contemporary capitalists also differ from laissez-faire in other important respects: capitalism tolerates monopolistic practices. A monopoly exists when a single business firm controls the market. Domination of an industry allows the firm to efficiently control a commodity by dictating pricing, quality standards, and availability carry it buyers have little choice but to yield to the firm’s decisions; there is no other place to purchase a product or service. Monopolistic practices violate the ideal free competition cherished by supporters of laissez-faire capitalism. Some capitalist nations such as the United States, outlaw monopolies through antitrust legislation such laws prevent any business from taking over so much of the competition and industry that controls the market. The US Federal government allows monopolies to exist only certain exceptional cases, such as the utility and transportation industries. Even then regulatory agencies scrutinize officially approved monopolies to protect the public. There are often protracted legal battles in this uneasy relationship between government and private monopolies in the capitalist countries (Schaefer, R.T.2009). In numerous industries a few companies largely dominate the field and keep new enterprises from coming into the market (Schaefer, R.T.2009). Conflict theorists point out that although pure monopolies are not basic elements of the economy of the United States, competition is much more restricted than one might expect in what is called a free enterprise system. Critics of the conflict perspective point to its overtly negative view of society. Functionalists have defended the status quo, attempting to avoid social change, and believe people cooperate to effect social order. Historically it was the conflict theorists that have changed the laws and the functionalists that opposed those changes in my opinion (Schaefer, R.T.2009).
Socialism
Social theory was developed in the writings Karl Marx and Frederick Engels. They were disturbed by the exploitation of the working class that emerged during the industrial revolution. In their view capitalism force large numbers of people to exchange their labor a low wages. The owners of an industry profit from the labor of workers primarily because they pay workers less than the value of the goods produced (Schaefer, R.T.2009).
As an ideal type, a socialist economic system attempts to limit such economic exploitation. Under socialism the means of production and distribution in a society are collectively rather than privately owned. The basic objective of the economic system is to meet people’s needs rather than maximize profits. Socialist rejected laissez-faire philosophy that free competition benefits the general public. Instead they believe that the central government, acting as the representatives of the people, should make basic economic decisions. Therefore of government ownership of or major industries including steel production or to mobile manufacture and agriculture is a primary feature of socialism as an ideal type. In practice socialist economic systems vary to the extent to which they tolerate private ownership. For example in Great Britain, a nation with some aspect of both socialist and capitalist economy, passenger airlines is concentrated in the government’s own corporation British Airways. Yet private airlines are allowed to compete with it (Schaefer, R.T.2009). Marx believed that social states would eventually wither away and evolve into communist societies. As an ideal type, communism refers to an economic system under which all property is commonly owned and no social distinctions are made on the basis of people’s ability to produce. In recent decades the Soviet Union, but People’s Republic of China, Vietnam, Cuba and nationalists in Eastern Europe were popularly thought of as examples of communist economic systems. However this usage represents an incorrect application of the term with sensitive political connotations. (Schaefer, R.T.2009). Each and every one of the nations known as communists in the 20th century in point of fact fell short of the ideal type. By the end of 1990s, communist parties no longer had pervasive influence on the nations of Eastern Europe. As of 2007, however, China, Cuba, Laos and Vietnam remain social societies ruled by communist parties. Nevertheless capitalism had begun to make inroads, even in those countries. In China fully 25% of the country’s production originated in the private business sector (Schaefer, R.T.2009). Capitalism and socialism serve as ideal types of economic system. In reality the economy of industrial nations including the United States, the European Union, and Japan, includes some elements of both capitalism and socialism. Whatever the difference, whether a society more closely fits the ideal type of capitalism or socialism, all industrial countries rely chiefly on mechanization in the production of goods and services (Schaefer, R.T.2009. p. 347)
The Informal Economy
In the informal economy transfers of goods money taking place, are not reported to the government. Examples of informal economy include trading services with someone for a haircut for computer lesson; selling goods on the street; an engaging in illiterate transactions such as gambling or drug deals. Participants in this type of economy avoid taxes and government regulation (Schaefer, R.T.2009). In developing nations, the informal economy represents a significant and unmeasured part of the total economy activity. Yet this sector of the economy depends to a large extent on the labor of women, work in the informal economy is undervalued or even unrecognized the world over. Functionalists contend that bureaucratic regulations sometimes contribute to the rise of an informal economy. In developing world government walked and sets of burdensome business regulations that overwork bureaucrats must administer. When request for licenses and permits pilot, delaying business projects, that it if it onto pit and was fined the need to go underground to get anything done. Despite its account efficiency, this type of informal economy is dysfunctional for country’s overall political and economic well being (Schaefer, R.T.2009).
Globalization
Colonialism occurs when a foreign power maintains political, social, economic and cultural dominance over people for an extended period of time. In simpler terms it is ruled by outsiders. By the 1980s, colonialism has largely disappeared. Most of the nations that were Colonies before World War 1 had achieved political independence, establishing their own governments. For numerous countries the transition to a legitimate self rule was incomplete. Colonial dominance had established patterns for economic exploitation continuing even after nationhood was accomplished, partially because Colonies were unable to develop their own industry and technology. Consequently their dependency on more industrialized nations, including the former colonial rulers, for managerial and technical expertise continues. Capital Investment and manufactured goods kept former Colonies in a subservient position. Such ongoing dependency and domination is referred to as Neocolonialism. The resulting effect of economic and political consequences of colonialism and Neocolonialism, are extremely obvious. Drawing on the conflict perspective sociologists the Emanuel Wallenstein, viewed global economy systems as being divided between nations that control wealth and nations from which resources are taken. Through his world system analyst Wallenstein’s team described the unequal economic and political relationships in which certain industrialized nations (United States, Japan and Germany, included) and global corporations, dominates the core of the system. Core nation’s corporations control and exploit non-core Nations’ economies (Schaefer, R.T.2009).
The world is becoming increasingly urbanized a trend that is gradually illuminating the large pools of low cost workers to reduce a label cost. The exhaustion of land and water resources through clear cutting and pollution is driving up the cost of production. Wallenstein’s world system analyst is a widely used version of the dependency theory. According to this theory even as developing countries make economic advancements they remain weak and subservient to the core nations and corporations in an increasingly intertwined globally economy (Schaefer, R.T.2009). In the view of the world system analyst and dependency theory, a growing share of human and natural resources of developing countries is being redistributed to the core industrialized nations. This redistribution happens because in part because developing countries owe huge sums of money to industrialized nations, as a result they must come up loans, and trade deficits. The global debt crisis has intensified the third world dependency begun under colonialism, Neocolonialism, and multinational investment. International Financial institutions are pressuring indebted countries to take severe measures to meet the interest payments. The consequence is that developing nations could be forced to devalue the currency, freeze workers’ wages, increased privatization of industry, and reduce government service in employment. Conflict theorists view continuing dependence of on foreign powers as an example of contemporary neo colonialism (Schaefer, R.T.2009).
Some observers see globalization and it’s affects as a natural result of advances in communications technology, such as, the Internet and satellite transmissions of the mass media. As Service Industries become a more important part of the international marketplace, many companies are concluding that low cost overseas operations more than offset the expense of transmitting information world. The total revenues in multinational businesses are on equal levels with a total value of goods and services exchanged in entire nations. (Schaefer, R.T.2009).
Functionalist believe that multinational corporations can actually help the developing nations of the world, by bringing jobs and industrial areas where subsistence agriculture once served as the only means of survival. Multinationals also promote rapid development through diffusion of inventions and innovations from the industrial nations. Viewed from the functionalist perspective, the combination of skill technology and management provided by the multinational and relatively cheap labor available in developing nations is ideal for global enterprise. They argue multinationals can take maximum advantage of technology, reducing costs and boosting profits through their international multinational that’s corporations will also make the nations of the world more independent. Their rationale is; these ties may curtail disputes from reaching the point of severe conflict. A country cannot afford to set up diplomatic relations then engage in warfare with a nation that is headquartered as its main business supplier or main outlets for its exports (Schaefer, R.T.2009).
Conflict theorists challenge this favorable evaluation of the impact of multinational corporations. They emphasize that the multinationals exploit local workers to maximize profits. The pool of cheap labor in developing world prompts multinationals’ to move factories out of core countries. An added bonus for the multinationals is that developing worlds discourage strong trade unions. In industrialized countries organized labor insists on decent wages and human working conditions (Schaefer, R.T.2009).
Research on women in national as well as international and global markets has led critical scholars to argue that capitalist industry has systematically exploited female labor— free labor in domestic contexts and low-wage labor in the commercial sector— in ways that distinguishes women’s experience (i.e. patricularism) from that of men of equivalent race, ethnic, and class backgrounds. For example, in the European context, while Rubery, Smith, and Fagan (1999) find women’s increased labor participation since the 1980s as a striking change in European labor markets, equally conspicuous is the continuing inequality experienced by women in market-based workplaces. These reflect deeply seated social and cultural norms (aka, patriarchy) that coexist with the ‘market ideal’ that ostensibly emphasizes instrumental and universalistic criteria instead of the particularism inherent to gender discrimination (Scott 1994; see also US parallels Treiman and Roos 1983; Milkman 1987; Ridgeway 1997). Similarly, research by critical scholars on global economic development has made a strong case that the exploitation of women’s labor has, in part, laid the basis for both the industrialization of the west (Engels 1902; Kessler-Harris and Levenson 1982; Matthaei 1982) and the more recent expansion of markets into parts of the developing world (Boserup 1970; Enloe 1990; Cheng and Hsuing 1992; Escobar 1995) (Korczynski, et-al, eds. 2006).

Opposing capital's globalization from above, cyber activists have been promoting globalization from below, developing networks of solidarity and propagating oppositional ideas and movements throughout the planet. Concurrently, the Right wing and reactionary forces have used the Internet to promote their political agendas as well. (Kellner, D.2002).
Social inequity describes a condition in which members of society have different amounts of wealth, pressed each, or power some degree of social equity characterizes every society. Income inequality is a basic characteristic of a class system in 2006 the median household income in the United States was $48,201 in other words half of all households headed higher incomes in that year. But this fact is not fully conveyed the income disparities in a society there is a broad range around the median income. Furthermore a considerable number of people fall to the extremes. In 2003 about 181 1000 tax returns reported income in excess of one million dollars at the same time over 23,000,000 household reported incomes less than 9000. About 1 to 2% of the people of the United States are the very wealthy. In contrast lower class consists of approximately 20- 25% of the population, it disproportionately consists of blacks, Hispanics, single mothers with dependent children, and people cannot find regular work one must subsist with low paying work. This class lacks both wealth and income and is too fragile politically to exercise significant power (Schaefer, R.T.2009). Sandwiched between the upper and lower classes in this model of the upper middle class and lower middle class is the working class. The upper middle class numbering about 10 to 15% of the population is composed of professional such as doctors, lawyers and architects. They participate extensively in politics and taking leadership roles in voluntary associations. The law may look less which accounts for approximately 30 to 35% of the population, includes the less affluent professionals such as the elementary school teachers and nurses owners of small businesses, and sizable number of clerical workers. While not all members of group have degrees from college they share a goal of sending the children there. This class is currently under a great deal of economic pressure. They are what are known as the shrinking middle class (Schaefer, R.T.2009).
Sociologists view the various perspectives of functionalism, conflict Theory, and Interactionism of all having an impact on the economy, in a unique way, because the economy is an important element of society, sociologists are interested in how those segments of the political populace had an influence and effect on the economy, its concepts of society’s social forces, and human behavior.


Reference
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Tuesday, June 15, 2010

Ounce of Prevention: is The Precautionary Principle a Sound Approach against Risk Analysis?

They say an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. If that is true, why does the United States government dismissively permit laws and policies to go into effect that affect the health and future of its 300 million citizens without proper precautionary investigations?
The debate today is should the United States should have more of precautionary policy concerning important issues, such as chemicals that go into our food , bioengineering of our food, as well as allowing drilling in delicate environmental areas. Furthermore, should we should act on cap and trade policy to protect ourselves against the impending and imminent dangers of global warming, and last but not least, should we start to convert our policies to favor expansion of renewable fuels. If we neglect these most important relevant issues, our planet and our health might degrade to such an extent that it will mean the extinction of humanity.
Every day our scientists are making new discoveries that are important to our future survival and yet if they conflict with corporate interests (profits) they are systematically distorted and swept under the rug. Statistics of Green energy successes are either mocked or swept under the rug.
In the United States we have to prove a chemical is dangerous before it can be taken off of the market, whereas in Europe the opposite is true, a product has to be tested extensively before it is allowed to be used by the public. In the United States, we do not test chemicals that are put into our diets; we do not execute longevity tests on the genetically altered foods. We have not done enough to insure our waters will be clean and our planet will be safe.
The precautionary Principle
What is the precautionary principle most Americans have never heard of it? It is the rule that we should leave a margin of safety for unexpected developments. This principle implies that we should strive to prevent harm to human health and the environment even if risks are not fully understood (Cunningham, W.P. and Cunningham, M.A.2008) p.385). The precautionary principle has played an increasingly important part in environmental law ever since it first appeared in Germany in the mid-1960s. On the international scene, it has been applied to climate change, hazardous waste management, ozone depletion, biodiversity, and fisheries management. In 1992 Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, listing it as Principle 15, codified it thus: In order to protect the environment, the precautionary approach shall be widely applied by States according to their capabilities. When there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation. "(Easton, T. 2008 p.3)
"The essence of the Precautionary Principle is that when lives and the future of the planet are at stake, people must act on these clues and prevent as much harm as possible, despite imperfect knowledge and even ignorance"( Easton, T. A. 2008 p.7). "Although some environmental policies are preventive, most have focused on cleaning up messes after the fact, this what environmentalists call: end of pipe solutions" Easton, T. 2008 p.8). This expression is ironic and apropos considering the Gulf oil spill disaster that is occurring as I write this essay. They are deciding what to do on the end of the pipe? The gulf incident in my opinion is a result of gross negligence that has taken place, a total lack of precaution, when the well was being designed and drilled. The fact that shoddy work to spare expense might cause irreversible harm and the death of many species of wildlife didn’t enter into the thoughts of those in charge nickel and diming our lives and our environmental sustainability. "The essence of the Precautionary Principle is that when lives and the future of the planet are at stake, people must act on clues and prevent as much harm as possible, despite imperfect knowledge and even ignorance.
Risk Analysis
In The United States the litmus test for providing new laws and safety for many years has been supposedly thorough risk analysis. “The industry typical technique for risk analysis is a graph or a plot with frequency of occurrence on one axis and severity of the consequences on the other. There are common errors in implementing this technique: failing to differentiate between types of risk, using estimated probability rather than frequency of occurrence, using ordinal instead of cardinal numbers, using different ranges for severity and frequency, using an inappropriate combining equation, using linear instead of logarithmic scales, explaining only intermediate risks, and confusing risk with uncertainty” (Bahill, A., & Smith, E. 2009). “Risk plots (graphs, charts. Figures) showing frequency of occurrence versus the severity of consequences was used in risk assessments of nuclear power systems (Joksimovic, Houghton, and Eon, 1977; Rasmussen, 1981). They were defined by Kaplan and Garrick (1981) and applied to civil engineering projects by Whitman (1984). Use of the risk plot was popularized by the Defense Systems Management College (1986); however, despite its popularity, the execution of this technique often has flaws” (Bahill, A., & Smith, E. 2009). There are many levels of risk: (1) system risk including performance, cost, and schedule of the product, (2) project risk, (3) business risk including financial and resource risks to the enterprise, and (4) safety, environmental, and risks to the public (Bahill, A., & Smith, E. 2009). The effect of a risk in one category may become the source of risk in another category. Interrelationships between the most common among them are: “1. Failing to differentiate between levels and categories of risk, 2. Using estimated probability of the event rather than its frequency of occurrence, 3. Using ordinal numbers instead of cardinal numbers for severity, 4. Using different ranges for severity and frequency, 5. Using an inappropriate combining equation, 6. Using linear scales instead of logarithmic scales, 7. Explaining only intermediate risks while seeming to ignore high and low risks, 8. Ignoring risk interactions and severity amplifiers, and, 9. Confusing risk with uncertainty” (Bahill, A., & Smith, E. 2009).
Opposing Opinions
"The U.S. Chamber supports a science-based approach to risk management; where risk is supposed to be assessed based on scientifically sound and technical rigorous analysis. Under this approach, regulatory actions are justified where there are legitimate, scientifically ascertainable risks to human health, safety, or the environment. Professor Bernard D. Goldstein argues that although the precautionary principle is potentially valuable, it poses a risk that scientific (particularly toxicological) risk assessment will be displaced to the detriment of public health, social justice, and the field of toxicology itself (Easton T 2008 p.3)
According to some of the largest corporations and congressionally elected government, people are worrying needlessly and they inhibit corporate growth, accordingly, in their opinion we should be more concerned about free enterprise rather than the environment. They feel too many constrictions and regulations on Corporations or on new product inhibit the economic growth and are a determent to their profits
Life sciences and biotechnology are widely regarded as one of the most promising frontier technologies for the coming decades and they may be used for a wide range of purposes" (Ghisleri, L. etc .2009) The Codex principles determine that risk assessment includes a safety assessment, which is carried out to identify whether a hazard, nutritional or other safety concern is present, and if present, to gather information on its nature and severity (Ghisleri, L. etc .2009)
Like any food, genetically modified or other novel foods are complex mixtures of thousands of different substances in varying proportions. With trusted foods that have been eaten for generations there is little concern and they are considered safe based on experience, not necessarily based on scientific proof. For novel or GM foods, proving safety is a legal obligation (Ghisleri, L. etc .2009).
Biotechnology may someday be considered a safe agricultural tool but studies suggest it may have harmful ecological consequences, such as: spreading genetically-engineered genes to indigenous plants increasing toxicity, which may move through the food chain disrupting nature’s system of pest control creating new weeds or virus strains
Transnational corporations (TNCs) such as Monsanto, DuPont, and Novartis, the main proponents of biotechnology, argue that cautiously planned introduction of these crops should reduce or even eliminate the enormous crop losses due to weeds, insect pests, and pathogens. In fact, they argue that the use of such crops will have added beneficial effects on the environment by significantly reducing the use of agrochemicals. Nevertheless, ecological theory predicts that as long as transgenic crops follow closely the pesticide archetype prevailing in modern agriculture, such biotechnological products will do nothing but strengthen the pesticide treadmill in agro ecosystems, thus legitimizing the concerns that many environmentalists and some scientists have articulated concerns about the possible environmental risks of genetically engineered organisms. In fact, there are several widely acknowledged environmental drawbacks associated with the rapid deployment and widespread commercialization of such crops in large monocultures including “Pests that show rapid evolution in resisting the pesticide properties of GMCs, toxic buildup in GMCs harms useful insects, the spread of transgenes to related weeds or nonspecific’s via crop-weed hybridization reduction of the fitness of non-target organisms through the acquisition of transgenic traits via hybridization the rapid evolution of resistance of insect pests such as Lepidoptera to Bt accumulation of the insecticidal Bt toxin, which remains active in the soil after the crop is ploughed under and binds tightly to clays and humic acids; disruption of natural control of insect pests through inter-trophic level effects of the Bt toxin on predators unanticipated effects on non-target herbivorous insects (i.e., monarch butterflies) through deposition of transgenic pollen on foliage of surrounding wild vegetation vector mediated horizontal gene transfer and recombination to create new pathogenic organisms (Altieri, M. 2001). Regulation (EC) No 1829/2003 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 September2003, on genetically modified food and feed, put in place a centralized and transparent consent procedure called “one door-one key” for the entire GM food and feed applications for placing on the market, whether they concern the GMO itself or the food and feed products derived there from, and sets out rules for labeling of foods and feeds, thereby enabling the consumer to make an informed choice and it also facilitates transactions between seller and purchaser. It draws from Regulation (CE) No 178/2002, which establishes the general principles and requirements of food legislation, and also by which the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) has been created. (Ghisleri, L. etc .2009). “Considered in the risk assessment are the following: the characteristics of the donor and recipient organisms; the genes inserted and expressed; the potential consequences of the genetic modification; the potential environmental impact following a deliberate release; the potential toxicity and allergenicity of gene products and metabolites; the compositional, nutritional, safety and agronomic characteristics; the influence of food processing on the properties of the food or feed; the potential for changes in dietary intake and the potential for long-term nutritional impact” (Ghisleri, L. etc .2009)
The regulatory frameworks in other countries differ from nation to nation. In Canada and the USA), the regulation of genetically modified (GM) crops, livestock feeds and human foods, shares many similarities: both countries have a coordinated approach whereby regulatory responsibility is shared by several agencies; risk assessments are based on sound science; and each regulated product (sectorial legislation) is assessed on a case-by-case basis under different specific regulation and depending on the scope of application. In these two countries, their regulations consider genetically modified foods as novel foods, but not a separate entity with respect to other foods. Rather, the focus is on the altered characteristics brought about by genetic modification, and the intended use of the novel crop.
The U.S. Chamber supports a science-based approach to risk management; where risk is assessed based on scientifically sound and technically rigorous analysis. Under this approach, regulatory actions are justified where there are legitimate, scientifically ascertainable risks to human health, safety, or the environment. That is, the greater the risk, the greater the degree of regulatory scrutiny. This standard has served the nation well, and has led to astounding breakthroughs in the fields of science, health care, medicine, biotechnology, agriculture, and many other fields. According to them, the relatively new theory, Precautionary Principle is gaining popularity among environmentalists and other groups.
Summation
The Precautionary Principle says that when the risks of a particular activity are unclear or unknown, assume the worst and avoid the activity. It is essentially a policy of risk avoidance (Easton, T. 2008). On the other hand, we have seen some of the flaws of risk analysis and how the facts and statistics can be watered down and manipulated, almost to the point of a parlors trick of hand, by eliminating facts in analysis graphs, such as: Explaining only intermediate risks while seeming to ignore high and low risks, Ignoring risk interactions and severity amplifiers, and, Confusing risk with uncertainty, using estimated probability of the event rather than its frequency of occurrence, using ordinal numbers instead of cardinal numbers for severity, using different ranges for severity and frequency, or using an inappropriate combining equation,” (Bahill, A., & Smith, E. 2009) Perhaps one might surmise that the US Chamber of Commerce might be saying Let’s take risks despite the consequences known or unknown as long as we make a good profit. We can deal with the consequences later. When have we not seen irresponsibility when large amounts of money are to be made? “In the long term, they say, what is needed is a shift from materialist to post-materialist values, from anthropocentric to ecological worldview, and a redefinition of the good life.
Many feel an unregulated free market system is incompatible with sustainability. Experience has shown that if green technology threatens profits, green technology loses and profitability wins (Easton, T.A. 2008). A good example is that of The Union of Concerned Scientists that argues that opposition to the idea that global warming is real, due to human activities, and is a threat to human well-being has been orchestrated by ExxonMobil in a disinformation campaign very similar to the tobacco industry’s efforts to convince the public that tobacco was not bad for health. Scientists have known for more than a century that carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases (including water vapor, methane, and chlorofluorocarbons) help prevent heat from escaping the earth’s atmosphere. In fact, it is this green house effect that keeps the earth warm enough to support life. Yet, of course there can be too much of a good thing. Ever since the dawn of the industrial age, humans have been burning vast quantities of fossil fuels, releasing the carbon they contain as carbon dioxide. Because of this, some estimate that by the year 2050, the amount of carbon dioxide in the air will be double what it was in 1850. By 1982 an increase was apparent. Less than a decade later, many researchers were saying that the climate had already begun to warm. Debate over the reality of the warming trend and its significance for humanity and the environment has been vigorous. In 2007, the Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) issued its Fourth Assessment Report; it says in no uncertain terms that Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, as is now evident from observations of increases in global average air and ocean temperatures, widespread melting of snow and ice, and rising global average sea level. The impacts on ecosystems and human well-being (especially in developing nations) will be serious (Gore, A., Baucus, M., Leahy, etc.1989).
Should we throw care to the wind and forget to be precautionary as the Chamber of commerce is suggesting along with ExxonMobil, or should we be precautious in our approach to Global Warming? I feel we should be following the lead of successful countries, for instance: "Denmark has substantial oil and gas supplies under the North Sea, but the Danes have chosen to wean themselves away from dependence on fossil fuels. Currently the world leader in renewable energy, Denmark now gets 20 percent of its power from solar, wind, and biomass. Some parts of this small, progressive country have moved even further toward sustainability. One of the most inspiring examples of these efforts are the small islands of Samsø and Ærø, which now get 100 percent of their energy from renewable sources. Samsø and Ærø lie between the larger island of Zealand (home to Copenhagen) and the Jutland Peninsula. The islands are mostly agricultural. Together, they have an area of about 200 km2 (77 mi2) and a population of about 12,000 people. In 1997, Samsø and Ærø were chose in a national competition to be renewable energy demonstration projects” (Cunningham and Cunningham 2008 p.287) Several European countries, including Sweden, Denmark, and Finland, have higher standards of living than does the United States by almost any measure but use about half as much energy Cunningham and Cunningham 2008 .283) It is interesting to note that they do have to depend on fossil fuels and yet we are more diverse in natural resources choices if we wanted to have them.
According to Professor Keller of the University of California, “The estimated recoverable energy from solar energy is about 1000 times the present human global energy consumption of 10 TW (230 exajoules) per year. 10 weeks of solar energy is roughly equivalent to the energy stored in all known reserves of coal, oil, an actual gas on earth. Solar energy is absorbed at the earth's surface at an average of 120, 000 TW (one TW is 1012 W), which is 10,000 times more the total global demand for energy and wind energy provides similar potentials. It is believed that there's sufficient wind energy in Texas, South Dakota, and North Dakota, to satisfy the electric needs of the entire country total global demand for energy” (Keller A. 2001)
"Scientific uncertainty is a fact of life even when it comes to the most obvious environmental problems, such as the disappearance of species, and the most potentially devastating trends, for example climate change. Scientists seldom know for sure what will happen until it happens, and seldom have all the answers about causes until well after the fact, if ever. Nevertheless, scientific knowledge, as incomplete as it may be, provides important clues to all of these conditions and what to do about them. The United States should have a precautionary view concerning chemicals that go into our food and also bioengineering as well. Fossil fuels has been one of the largest problems of global warming , we carelessly drill , allow harmful chemicals into the sea to disperse our spills, Destroy our rainforests and other tree three forest manipulate rivers dangerously, pollute environments with dangerous radioactive materials as well as allow drilling in delicate environmental all for our fossils fuels which perpetuate global warming. Meanwhile the corporations that are making their profits from this are spending billions of dollars to block legislations and pay out fortunes in money to politician and to advance a campaign of misinformation, and studies, that are based on trumped up unscientific and non peer reviewed reports, blocking clean renewable energy which is their completion and our most urgent cure for global warming. It is very important that we move now to get the correct legislation into place and get the real truth out there, because our health and planet might degrade to such an extent that it will mean our extinction. “Throughout its history the Clean Air Act has been controversial. Victims of air pollution demand more protection; industry and special interest groups complain that controls are too expensive. “(Cunningham and Cunningham 2008 p.227)
I think the media is to blame for allowing ExxonMobil to get away with its misinformation campaign, for instance here are some of the action they are responsible for allowing this to happen. According to a report in the year 2006 from the Union of Concerned Scientists
“ExxonMobil has drawn upon the tactics and even some of the organizations and actors involved in the callous disinformation campaign the tobacco industry waged for 40 years. Like the tobacco industry, ExxonMobil has: Manufactured uncertainty by raising doubts about even the most indisputable scientific evidence. They have adopted a strategy of information laundering by using seemingly independent front organizations to publicly further its desired message and thereby confuse the public. They have according to the Union of Concerned Scientists report of 2007,” promoted scientific spokespeople who misrepresent peer-reviewed scientific findings or cherry-pick facts in their attempts to persuade the media and the public that there is still serious debate among scientists that burning fossil fuels has contributed to global warming and that human-caused warming will have serious consequences. They have attempted to shift the focus away from meaningful action on global warming with misleading charges about the need for sound science. Used its extraordinary access to the Bush administration to block federal policies and shape government communications on global warming. The report documents that, despite the scientific consensus about the fundamental understanding that global warming is caused by carbon dioxide and other heat-trapping emissions, ExxonMobil has funneled about $16 million between 1998 and 2005 to a network of ideological and advocacy organizations that manufacture uncertainty on the issue. Many of these organizations have an overlapping sometimes identical collection of spokespeople serving as staff, board members, and scientific advisors. By publishing and republishing the non-peer-reviewed works of a small group of scientific spokespeople, ExxonMobil funded organizations have propped up and amplified work that has been discredited by reputable climate scientists. (From Union of Concerned Scientists, 2007)

Conclusions
They say an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. We need to change our policy and stop listening to paid off lobbyists who were politicians of past, we also need to have a higher standard in this country for drilling, and stronger laws for polluters . Not United States government to dismissively permit laws and policies to go into effect that can harm the health and future of its 300 million citizens without proper precautionary investigations.
Every time a bribed politician or an ex politician lobbyist says global warming isn’t real, cap and trade is a waste of money, alternative energies are not really effective or drilling the ocean isn’t the end of the world, you have to wonder, because, today might be the start of the end of the planet if we continue to make wrong decisions and allow money to buy the medias off and bury truth. "Making companies prove that their chemical products are safe before they are sold would be a revolutionary change. It is very difficult to conceive of the U.S. where corporate lobbyists spend millions of dollars influencing congressional legislation, the chances of ever having a similar regulatory regime to the one being implemented in Europe would be nearly impossible, but, if any time is the right it could be now, People who have passionate feelings on this subject must speak out by letters to their politically elected leaders by joining groups, signing petitions, blogging on prestigious, high profile sites, We must send out hard facts and opinions based on those facts, not just our opinions basted on intuition or emotion. Now is the time to do so, because we have a President willing to expand our renewable energies, is in favor of cap and trade, we also had that devastating spill incident in the gulf that showed us exactly how safe drilling is and what the consequences of the lack of precautions can result in. The weighting and balances of risks is not a wild idea, it is sensible and the right thing to do.
Reference
Altieri, M. (2001). The ecological impacts of agricultural biotechnology retrieved from http://www.actionbioscience.org/biotech/altieri.htm on June 1, 2010
Bahill, A. & Smith, E. (2009). An industry standard risk analysis technique Engineering Management Journal, 21(4), 16-29 retrieved from Academic Search Premier Database.
Cunningham, W.P. and Cunningham, M.A. (2008). Principles of environmental science: Inquiry and applications (Custom 5th Ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Easton, T.A. (2008). Taking sides: Clashing views on controversial environmental issues. (Custom 13th ed.) New York: McGraw-Hill.
Ghisleri, L., Anadón, A. Recuerda, M. Peralta, P. Botija, F., Cañellas, A., et al. (2009). Risk analysis and GM Foods: Scientific risk assessment. European Food & Feed Law Review, 4(4), 235-250 retrieved from Academic Search Premier Database.
Gore, A., Baucus, M., Leahy, P., Stafford, R.T, Durenburger, D. and Humphrey, G. J. (1989). The potential effects of global climate change on the United States U.S. EPA Office of Policy, Planning, and Evaluation
Keller, E. A. (2001). Some facts about nuclear, solar, and wind power, University of California, Santa Barbara.